Bougainville Overview
Bougainville is the largest of the Solomon Islands in the southwestern Pacific. It has an estimated population of 185,000 people, almost all of whom are melanesian with 21 different language groups. It is approximately 190 kms long (118 miles) and 60 kms wide, rising to 2743m at Mt.Balbi. It is mostly covered in tropical rainforest with cleared areas for villages, gardens, plantations, towns and mining. It is rich in natural resources.
History of Bougainville
Little has been documented about the early history of the island with archeological evidence suggesting habitation between 28 to 30 thousand years. French navigator, Louis-Antoine de Bougainville sailed close to the island in 1768 during a scientific voyage of exploration commisioned by the French government. Later, Napolean I named the island after de Bougainville as well as the Bougainville Strait and the South American shrub bougainvillea.
Although Bougainville belongs to the Solomon islands group, it was politically divided from the southern islands by a British, German and United States trade-off known as the Anglo-German treaty on Samoa in 1898, in which Germany kept administration of Bougainville and the north east quarter of New Guinea. Bougainville was occupied in 1914 (early in WW1) by the Australian forces becoming an Australian mandate. In 1942 the Japanese occupied Bougainville before the U.S. troops overtook it in 1944 after which it was made a part of the U.N. Trust Territory of Papua New Guinea and returned to Australian administration. By the time PNG achieved independence from Australia in 1975, Bougainville had already made claims of self determination, but accepted a North Solomons Provincial Government with greater autonomy within the PNG constitution.
Arawa became the administrative headquarters, although Kieta supported much commercial enterprise. Copra, cocoa and timber became major exports. Meanwhile, however, the majority of Bougainvillians lived a subsistence way of life.
In 1965, huge quantities of copper were found at mountainous Panguna. Bougainville Copper Limited was formed with Conzinc Rio Tinto (CRA) owning 53% and the PNG government 20%. In 1969 the Bougainville women protested about the loss of their land, lying down in front of the earth movers and were forcibly removed. Production began in 1972 and by the 1980s the Panguna copper mine accounted for 40% of all of PNG's exports and 19% of state revenues.
Bougainville Crisis
In 1989, the Bougainville people, lead by Francis Ona destroyed pylons to the mine effectively closing it down. They demanded 11 billion dollars compensation from BCL. PNG replied by sending in the police, and as trouble escalated, they also sent the PNG Defence Force. Bougainville was without an effective fighting force and both the PNG and Australian governments assumed that the trouble could be resolved relatively quickly.
However, Sam Kauona, a Bougainvillean lieutenant with the PNG DF and trained in Victoria, Australia, specialising in ammunitions, returned to his island where he began to train a guerrilla-style fighting force called the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA). Significantly, Sam Kauona has been the only Bougainvillean trained within the PNG Defence Force. He and other Bougainvilleans, notably Ishmael Toroama were instrumental in a number of successful campaigns against the PNG DF. After the initial temporary withdrawal of the PNG DF the BRA claimed the independence of Bougainville in 1990 using the name Me'ekamui (God's chosen island).
However, with the absence of a law enforcing authority, some Bougainvilleans operating outside of the BRA were involved in human rights abuses against their own people. This resulted in divisions amongst the Bougainville people. Amongst others, Buka, in the north, requested the return of the PNGDF. Some Bougainville families were themselves divided. For example, Moses Havinni of Buka found himself and his immediate family internationally publicising the Bougainville cause whilst they were living in exile in Australia whilst other members of his extended family in Buka requested the return of the PNGDF.
Whether or not the PNGDF would have returned to Bougainville had they not been invited is unknown to us (writers). We would appreciate further information on this aspect. However, when the PNGDF returned, some Bougainvilleans fought with them against the BRA. These Bougainvillenas formed the Bougainville Resistance Fighters.
By 1991, the PNG DF "illegally" using Australian donated helicopters and Australian and New Zealand commercial pilots, as well as being funded via Australian and international aid programs continued to be unable to defeat the BRA. As a result the PNG government imposed a blockade aound the island preventing even the Red Cross from giving humanitarian aid, whilst continuing military offensives. As a result, an estimated 10,000 to 20,000 Bougainville people died from 1990 to 1996. Other writers quote much higher figures, and although there are ongoing attempts to document these "crisis" years, we are still only able to provide estimates.
Perhaps the seriousness of the effects of the blockade can be gauged by statistics kept in one village of 2000 people in which health workers reported 80 maternal deaths between 1990 and 1994, 140 deaths of children under 5, and 130 stillbirths.
During the crisis, it is alleged by many sources that many crimes including rape, torture, killing of civilians, and destruction of property were committed by the PNG Defence Force. On the island, people attempted to live their lives as normal, or they joined the BRA, the Resistance Fighters (with the PNG DF), sought safety in PNG controlled Care Centres, or fled to Care Centres in the Solomon islands. During this time some Bougainvilleans continued to live in PNG, especailly students at the University of PNG in Port Moresby, Lae and Goroka. However, several well known Bougainvilleans were murdered or died "mysteriously" whilst in PNG. The Catholic Bishop of Bougainville, Gregory Sigkai died allegedly of food poisoning whilst in Rabaul in September,1996. Perhaps the most reported case occured in Bougainville itself when Premier Theodore Miriung was assasinated in October,1996, again allegedly by the PNG DF.
Towards Peace
Finally, the Sir Julius Chan Government, urged by the Deputy Prime Minister, Chris Haiveta, attempted to resolve the situation by hiring a mercenary army known as Sandline International. This was condemned throughout the region but would have gone ahead had not Brigadier General Jerry Singirok, initially in agreement with Chan and Haiveta, changed his mind and dramatically arrested the Sandline leadership whilst in Port Moresby. Although Singirok's motivation was later thought to be mercenary (he had accepted a bribe from a rival military supplier), he was hailed a hero as a popular uprising saw the Chan government ousted.
After this test of PNG democracy, a shacky truce was brokered at the Burnham Military Base, Aetearoa, New Zealand in July,1997 between a more sympathetic PNG Prime Minister, Bill Skate (who quickly became known for his unusual if not eccentric behaviour), the PNG DF, the BRA and the Resistance Fighters. A Truce Monitoring Group (TMG) comprising unarmed military and civilians from Australia, New Zealand, Fiji and Vanuatu were invited to the island where they have since remained. A Bougainville Transitional Government under Joe Kabui was established, and in 1998 the first Bougainville Women for Peace and Freedom meeting, chaired by Josephine Sirivi, was held; especially significant given that Bougainville is a matrilinear society (the land is owned by the women). Talks towards a Referendum on Independence, Weapons Disposal, and an autonomous Bougainville government were held through to 2001 before agreement was reached on an autonomous Bougainville Government still operating within the PNG Constitution, and with a referendum on the Independence of Bougainville to be held at a future date. This in turn required PNG constitutional change which was achieved in March, 2002.
As importantly, reconcilliation within Bougainville families and communities has continued throughout this process. This has especially involved reconcilliation between the Resistance and the BRA. Reconcilliation between the BRA and the PNG Government and Defence Force might now be considered, although this would need to address issues of human rights abuses and war crimes.
Conclusion
This article is intended only to introduce the reader to some of the isues and events which have surrounded a very complex and bloody conflict as a background to the published video and CD "Bougainville Voices".We would suggest that the reader read the Bougainville Diary (free download) for further information about these recordings. We would also urge the reader to seek more information and to contact us with any comments or further queries.
Personal Footnote 28th Feb., 2008
Having read through what I wrote seven years ago, I think it best to leave it as is for it reflects my thinking at that time. I will add the following.
After returning to Sydney in 1998 I did pass on Josephine's letter to the Catholic Cardinal Clancy and I also forwarded various personal mail from some of the Bougainville people. I also kept in touch with Sam Josey, Joe, Moses (Havini) and others via sattelite phone, and land phone (when Sam and Josey were in New Zealand). We kept up a lively debate and together discussed the long standing request for a referendum on independence and greater financial autonomy for Bougainville. Most important of all, peace continues. Prior to 1997 I once met Sam when he was attending a Peace meeting in Cairns (1995) but otherwise had no contact with Bougainville during the war years. Previously I was holidaying there in 1987.
These days (Feb, 2008) I am still occasionally in touch with Bougainville and I do hope to pay another visit and make or assist in making more recordings. Josey has been asking me to do this. Who knows what the future holds. For me, Bougainville has been a rare and enriching privilege.
We hope you enjoy this rare and unusual music.
Justin Tonti
